危险犯传统上分为具体危险犯和抽象危险犯，所谓的具体危险是在外在现实世界中可以被观察到的一种事实状态，在此状态中有对象陷在其危险效力范围内，而与实害发生有密接可能性。换言之，具体危险概念的重点在于，必须是个案内的行为确实已制造出一个法益客体陷于险境，情况危急的状况，所以说，在个案中究竟有没有具体危险状态出现乃犯罪成立与否的前提，法官应依据一般因果性法则即一般生活经验来检验某个个案中的事实状态，采事后判断的方式，审查事实上对于条文欲保护的法益客体是否存在着实害发生的密切可能性。这也是我国的刑法文献所强调的，具体危险犯必须产生一个具体的危险结果，而法官在个案中必须一一去认定是否己有危险结果发生。抽象危险犯系指，依据一般日常生活之重复经验得到的惯例知识，呈现出某一类型的行为方式对于法益的侵害有“危险性”或者说“风险性”。抽象危险犯就是立法者经过一定数量的事例观察，将经验上具有“损害危险性”的行为抽离出特征，以之作为条文的构成要件要素。抽象危险犯的重点在于“法益受侵害的不确定性”，也就是即使完成了构成要件所描绘出来的特定行为方式，对于刑法所保护的法益而言，其侵害的发生仍不确定且不明显。而这样的“损害发生的不确定性”之所以会引起刑法的重视，是因为该行为对法益侵害具有独特的危险性。正如骆克信教授指出，“抽象危险犯是一个行为的独特的危险性，被当作刑罚制裁的原因，行为的可罚性，与实际上是否出现危险状态无关。” 对于这一分类有无实质意义理论上有肯定说也有否定说，持否定论的学者如许玉秀教授，她从其它角度指出“看不出来抽象危险犯与具体危险犯在举证法则上可能受到什么差别待遇”，又谓“其实从所谓抽象具体危险犯这种概念的提出，可以看出没有办法将危险毫无困难的区分为抽象或具体，而事实上这种区分也没有实益”。 史卫忠博士也认为“抽象危险犯为多余之物，又给司法擅断提供了可乘之机。” 德国学者，认为抽象危险犯在概念上与举动犯是一样，抽象危险犯的概念应当予以放弃。
我个人认为具体危险犯和抽象危险犯之间的界线虽然不明显但是从立法上来看的确存在着两种不同的危险行为模式，具体危险犯和抽象危险犯虽然同属于危险犯的范畴,但二者无论是从特征上,还是对“危险”含义以及存在形态上均有所不同。首先,在具体危险犯中,危险是理所应当的犯罪成立要件;而抽象危险犯的规范特征是,危险不是该犯罪构成的要件,而是该行为可罚的实质违法的根据。因此,抽象危险犯的成立并不要求行为对法益侵害的危险具体地达到现实化的程度体危险犯中的危险,其次具体危险犯中的危险是在司法上以行为当时的具体情况为根据,认定行为具有发生侵害结果的可能性;而抽象危险犯中的危险,是在司法上以一般的社会生活经验为根据,认定行为具有发生侵害结果的可能性。最后,具体危险犯,在个案上已经引起刑法所保护客体的危险,故具体危险犯是广义的结果犯,此为欧陆刑法理论通说所共认。而抽象危险犯,是单纯处罚行为人的行为,因为他的行为具有典型的危险性,故有人认为是行为犯之一种。因此,二种犯罪类型的理论基础是完全不同的,应该会得出不同的结果及处罚的基础。举个简单的例子来说如放火罪和醉酒驾驶，放火是危险犯，醉酒驾驶也是在刑法中讨论很热烈的能不能入罪的一个危险行为，一但入罪只能是危险犯，但是二者的危险存在着不可掩饰的不同，放火的危险是很现实的危险，因为放火行为我们可以预测到大约有多少财产将受到损失而醉酒驾驶就不同了，虽然是醉酒驾驶，不一定就会发生危害后果，甚至即使会发生危害后果，在没有发生以前我们也很难预料到危害后果有多严重，总之，其危险性具有不可估量性，只能是说这一行为是危险行为，可能或很可能会给公共的财产、人身造成损害后果。因此，具体的危险犯和抽象的危险犯分类还是有其必要性的。
很多学者对具体危险犯问题的判断、认识没有什么疑问，但是对于抽象危险犯的一些问题还是存在这样那样的分歧，正如有的学者所说抽象危险犯虽然是近来刑法理论的大热门,但相比于长久以来对实害犯及具体危险犯的研究,抽象危险犯的研究显得微不足道。尤其,在面临风险社会冲击的变革时代,刑法常常面临诸如环境、食品、医疗、金融、交通或者是生物科技等领域突发灾害的反复冲击,但是基本理论面欠缺,常常反而是造成刑法对此鞭长莫及或是不相凿枘的主要原因。因此，在这里对抽象危险犯问题进行更加详细的论述，试图从抽象危险犯处罚的依据和正当性进行进一步的探讨，更深入的认识。
关于抽象危险犯处罚的基础及其正当性的讨论，其文章虽已为数不少，但由于抽象危险犯以“拟制的危险状态”的出现作为可罚性依据,而传统刑法责任主义认为,刑罚适用的前提是一个行为对特定的法益有危险或造成侵害。抽象危险犯似乎没有法益侵害与法益危险,因此依照传统刑法,处罚抽象危险行为与责任主义刑法的原则不兼容.因此对于抽象危险犯存在的必要性以及实践中立法、司法的可行性，是一个重要而有研究价值的问题。
在欧陆法系中,危险犯的立法向来被认为是一种处罚早期化的情形之一。在具体危险犯的场合,刑法之防卫线向前移置,在侵害结果出现前即给予处罚,是考虑该行为对法益侵害之危险性相当高,如不予以处罚,恐将造成更大损害,因而在实害尚未发生前即给予截堵处罚,并进而维护社会秩序及国家安全,人民之生命及财产等法益将因而受到更周全的保障。而在抽象危险犯的场合,甚至在真正的危险状态尚未切实存在的情况下,刑法即以正犯之既遂而追究行为人的责任,提前对其施以刑事处罚措施。因而,较之具体危险犯而言,在抽象危险犯的立法设置中,刑法的触角又继续向前延伸,其保护范围也进一步扩大,因而抽象危险犯更应当被视为处罚早期化思想的典型体现。
抽象危险犯的社会基础是基于风险社会风险控制理论的提出，这一理论最早是由德国学者贝克首先系统全面的提出的，在贝克提出风险社会理论之后,迅速引起西方社会学界的广泛关注,各国学者纷纷在贝克的理论基础之上对风险社会进行了系统而细致的研究。
抽象危险性理论是德国的通说,建立在抽象危险的拟制性基础之上。如雅科布斯认为,抽象危险犯的刑罚理由是因为特定的行为方式或带有特定结果的行为含有超离个案的一般危险性。 耶赛克认为,抽象危险犯是具体危险犯的前阶,其处罚理由从其行为对于特定法益的一般危险性即已表现出来。危险结果的发生,并不属于构成要件,因为有关的行为足以典型的惹起危险。基于抽象危险犯的性质和处罚理由,很多学者对之提出了激烈的批评。最典型的就是抽象危险犯遭到了责任主义原则的强有力的质疑。如德国学者考夫曼指出,罪责原则的意义在于,必须要有对具体个别的法益的侵害或危险的具体故意或过失方能认为有责任。而抽象危险犯的危险为拟制的危险,并非为具体个别的法益的危险或者说拒绝对具体个别法益的危险进行判断,更缺乏对该法益危险的具体故意或过失。所以很难说符合责任主义或罪责原则。 除此之外在结果无价值的立场来看,抽象危险犯也受到了激烈的批评。日本刑法界有结果无价值论者认为,以危险拟制为基础的抽象危险犯欠缺与保护法益具体相关联的行为,对这种欠缺“行为”的处罚其处罚根据是不合理的,也是不正义的。虽然有这些质疑，但随着风险社会的到来以及人们利益保护的需要，抽象危险犯还是具有其不可磨灭的生命力。其存在符合刑法的预防功能也是风险社会的复杂性条件下自我决定能力的有限性也有待于国家通过对某些行为抽象危险犯类型化以充分履行国家保护人民的职责。对此我国台湾学者王皇玉博士指出,首先,抽象危险犯的构成要件设置是一种对于法益的提前而周延的保护,也可以说是对法益保护的前置化措施。如果刑法的犯罪处罚结构坚守在实害犯与具体危险犯的范围内,对于刑法的保护而言,无疑呈现出不力与迟延之态。其次,对于抽象危险犯的处罚,也可以被视为一种对法益实现条件的确保。因为法益保护并非对于孤立或静止状态的个人利益加以保护,还应该进而考虑到保护人们得以理性支配与运用这些个人利益的机会、条件与制度。没有实现机会与条件的利益只是虚假的利益,同样,没有制度性保障的利益也不可能持久而真实的存在。但是,对于那些作为法益得以实现与发展的机会、条件与制度,不能认为其理所当然地存在,而应该通过一些前瞻性的法律措施,使其能够得到保护和维持。
国务院关于口岸开放的若干规定(附英文)
国务院
国务院关于口岸开放的若干规定(附英文)
1985年9月18日，国务院
规定
随着我国对外贸易、国际交往和旅游事业的发展，将进一步开放新的口岸。为加强口岸开放的审批工作，特制定本规定。
一、本规定所指口岸是供人员、货物和交通工具出入国境的港口、机场、车站、通道等。口岸分为一类口岸和二类口岸。一类口岸是指由国务院批准开放的口岸（包括中央管理的口岸和由省、自治区、直辖市管理的部分口岸）；二类口岸是指由省级人民政府批准开放并管理的口岸。
二、口岸的开放和关闭，由国务院或省级人民政府审批后公布执行。
三、凡开放口岸，应根据需要设立边防检查、海关、港务监督、卫生检疫、动植物检疫、商品检验等检查检验机构，以及国家规定的其他口岸机构。
四、两类口岸的具体划分：
（一）以下为一类口岸：
1、对外国籍船舶、飞机、车辆等交通工具开放的海、陆、空客货口岸；
2、只允许我国籍船舶、飞机、车辆出入国境的海、陆、空客货口岸；
3、允许外国籍船舶进出我国领海内的海面交货点。
（二）以下为二类口岸：
1、依靠其他口岸派人前往办理出入境检查检验手续的国轮外贸运输装卸点、起运点、交货点；
2、同毗邻国家地方政府之间进行边境小额贸易和人员往来的口岸；
3、只限边境居民通行的出入境口岸。
五、报批程序：
（一）一类口岸：由有关部（局）或港口、码头、车站、机场和通道所在地的省级人民政府会商大军区后，报请国务院批准，同时抄送国务院口岸领导小组、总参谋部和有关主管部门。
（二）二类口岸：由口岸所在地的人民政府征得当地大军区和海军的同意，并会商口岸检查检验等有关单位后，报请省级人民政府批准。批文同时送国务院口岸领导小组和有关主管部门备案。
六、报批开放口岸应附具下列资料：
（一）对口岸开放进行的可行性研究报告，以及口岸的基本条件、近三年客货运量、经济效益和发展前景的资料。
（二）根据客货运输任务提出的有关检查检验单位、口岸办公室、中国银行等机构设置和人员编制方案。
（三）检查检验场地和办公、生活设施等规划，以及投资预算和资金来源。
七、对外开放前的验收：
（一）新开放的口岸，在开放前必须对其交通安全设施、通信设施、联检场地、检查检验等单位的机构设置和人员配备，以及办公、生活设施等进行验收。验收合格后，才能宣布开放。
（二）一类口岸，由国务院口岸领导小组办公室负责组织验收；二类口岸，由所在省、自治区、直辖市口岸办公室或其他主管口岸工作的部门负责组织验收。
八、临时进出我国非开放区域的审批权限：
（一）临时从我国非开放的港口或沿海水域进出的中、外国籍船舶，由交通部审批，并报国务院口岸领导小组备案。报批前应征得军事主管部门和当地人民政府以及有关检查检验单位的同意，并安排好检查检验工作。
（二）临时从我国非开放机场起降的中、外国籍民用飞机，由中国民用航空局征得军事主管部门同意后审批，非民用飞机由军事主管部门审批，并报国务院口岸领导小组备案。报批前应征得当地人民政府和有关检查检验部门的同意，并安排好检查检验工作。
（三）临时从我国非开放的陆地边界区域进出境的中、外国籍车辆和人员，由省级人民政府审批。报批前应征得当地省军区和公安部门的同意，并安排好检查检验工作。
九、口岸开放应有计划地进行，按隶属关系分别列入国家或地方口岸开放计划。国务院有关部门和省、自治区、直辖市应将口岸开放计划（草案），于计划年度前两个月报国务院口岸领导小组，并抄报国家计委、劳动人事部和检查检验单位的有关主管部门。
十、开放口岸检查检验设施建设资金来源：
（一）中央管理的口岸，由中央负责解决；地方管理的口岸，由地方负责解决。
（二）国家新建开放的港口、码头、车站和机场（含军用改为军民合用的机场）等口岸建设项目（包括利用外资和中外合资项目），以及老口岸新建作业区和经济开发区的新港区等项目，所需联检场地应与港口、码头、车站、机场等主体工程统一规划。所需投资包括在主体工程之内。
检查检验单位办公、生活土建设施（包括宿舍）的投资，由口岸建设项目的主管部门组织有关单位研究，统一汇总报国家计委审批。批准后，投资划拨给口岸所在地的省、自治区、直辖市，由地方统一规划，统一设计施工。军用改建为军民合用机场的口岸项目，应事先征得空军或海军同意，如在机场内建设，建设单位可提出要求，由空军或海军统一规划。
（三）各部（局）直属的原有港口、码头、车站和机场需要对外开放时，所需联检场地，原则上要利用原有建筑设施。如确需扩建、新建，应由港口、码头、车站和机场的主管部门投资建设。检查检验单位的办公、生活土建设施（包括宿舍）的投资，原则上由各自主管部门解决。对确有困难的，国家或地方给予适当补助，由地方统一建设，投资交地方包干使用。
（四）地方新开口岸，所需联检场地和检查检验单位的办公、生活土建设施（包括宿舍），由地方统一投资，统一建设。
（五）国际海员俱乐部的建设规划和投资来源，比照（二）、（三）、（四）项规定解决。
（六）检查检验单位所需的交通工具、仪器设备等，由各自主管部门解决。
（七）联检场地内，划给检查检验单位的办公和业务用房（包括水、电、市内电话），应由港口、码头、车站和机场（包括军民合用的机场）的经营单位免费提供。
十一、本规定由国务院口岸领导小组办公室负责解释。
十二、本规定自发布之日起施行。
PROVISIONS OF THE STATE COUNCIL ON THE OPENING OF PORTS
Important Notice: (注意事项)
英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民
共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版).
当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.
This English document is coming from the "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.
Whole Document (法规全文)
PROVISIONS OF THE STATE COUNCIL ON THE OPENING OF PORTS
(Promulgated on September 18, 1985)
With the development of our foreign trade, international exchanges and
tourisms, more ports will be opened. These Provisions are formulated in
order to strengthen the work in the examination and approval for opening
ports to foreign countries.
1. The term "ports" referred to in these Provisions denotes the harbours,
airports, stations, thoroughfares, etc., which are used for personnel,
goods or means of transport to enter or leave the country. The ports in
our country are divided into two categories. Category-1 ports refer to
those ports which have been opened upon the approval of the State Council
(including those administered by the Central Government and some of the
ports administered by the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities
directly under the Central Government); category-2 ports refer to those
ports which have been opened upon approval by the people's governments at
the provincial level and are administered by them.
2. The opening and closing of ports shall be announced and executed after
the examination and approval by the State Council or the people's
governments at the provincial level.
3. Organs in charge of frontier inspection, Customs, harbour
superintendency, quarantine, quarantine for animals and plants, commodity
inspection, etc., as well as other port organs stipulated by State shall
be set up at the open ports according to the actual needs.
4. Criteria for the division of the two categories of ports:
(1) The following are category-1 ports:
A. ports open to vessels, planes, vehicles and other means of transport of
foreign nationality used to transport passengers and goods into or out of
China through sea, land or air;
B. ports for use only by Chinese vessels, planes and vehicles transporting
passengers and goods out of or into the country through sea, land or air;
C. spots on the sea within our territorial waters where vessels of foreign
nationality are allowed to enter or leave for the purpose of delivering
goods.
(2) The following are category-2 ports:
A. spots for loading and unloading, starting shipment and delivering goods
for Chinese vessels engaged in foreign trade where the formalities for
exit and entry inspection and examination are conducted by personnel sent
from other ports;
B. ports where border trade in small amounts and contacts between people
are carried out with local governments of neighbouring countries;
C. ports restricted to the exit or entry of the local residents in the
border areas.
5. The procedures for report and approval:
(1) Category-1 ports: the relevant ministries (or bureaus) or the people's
governments of the provinces where the harbours, wharves, stations,
airports and thoroughfares in question are situated shall, after
consultation with the military area commands, submit the application to
the State Council for approval, with copies of the application sent to the
Leading Group for Port Affairs of the State Council, the Headquarters of
the General Staff of the People's Liberation Army and the relevant
competent departments.
(2) Category-2 ports: The people's governments of the regions where the
ports in question are situated shall first obtain the agreement of the
military area commands concerned and the Navy, and hold consultations with
the units in charge of port inspection and examination. Applications shall
then be submitted to the people's governments at the provisional level for
approval, with copies of which sent to the Leading Group for Port Affairs
under the State Council and the relevant competent departments for the
record.
6. The following materials should be attached to application for opening a
port:
(1) A feasibility report, the materials concerning the basic conditions of
the ports, the volume of passenger transport and freight volume in the
last three years, and the potential economic results and the prospects for
development.
(2) The plan for the establishment of such port organs as offices in
charge of inspection and examination, offices for port affairs and
branches of the Bank of China, according to the task for transporting
passengers and goods.
(3) Plans for constructing inspection and examination grounds and for
building facilities for office work and the daily life of the staff
members, as well as investment budget and source of funds.
7. Final check-up and acceptance before a port is opened:
(1) Before a new port is opened, the establishment of organs and the
provisions of staff members of offices in charge of traffic safety, for
telecommunications, combined inspection and examination as well as
facilities for office work and daily life must go through the procedure of
final check-up and acceptance. New ports may be opened only after the
facilities are finally checked and accepted.
(2) The office of the Leading Group for Port Affairs of the State Council
shall be responsible for the check-up and acceptance of category-1 ports.
The offices for port affairs in the provinces, autonomous regions and
municipalities directly under the Central Government or other competent
departments in charge of port affairs shall be responsible for the check-
up and acceptance of category-2 ports.
8. The competence for examination and approval of applications for
temporarily entry and exit at the non-open areas of our country:
(1) Applications by vessels of Chinese or foreign nationality for
temporarily entry or exit at non-open harbours or coastal waters of China
shall be examined and approved by the Ministry of Communications and
reported to the Leading Group for Port Affairs of the State Council for
the record. Before the applications are submitted for approval, the
agreement of the competent authorities for military affairs, the local
people's governments and the relevant units in charge of examination and
inspection shall be obtained, and the details of the examination and
inspection work shall be arranged.
(2) Applications by civil planes of Chinese or foreign nationality for
temporarily take-offs or landings at China's non-open airports shall be
examined and approved by the Civil Aviation Administration of China,
which, however, should obtain the agreement of the competent authorities
for military affairs. Applications by non-civil planes shall be examined
and approved by the competent authorities for military affairs. Both kinds
of applications must be reported to the Leading Group for Port Affairs of
the State Council for the record. Before the applications are submitted
for approval, the agreement of the local people's governments and the
relevant departments for examination and inspection should be obtained,
and the details of the examination and inspection work shall be arranged.
(3) Applications by vehicle and personnel of Chinese or foreign
nationality for temporarily entry and exit at our non-open border areas on
land shall be examined and approved by the people's governments at the
provincial level. Before the applications are submitted for approval, the
agreement of the relevant provincial military area command and the
department of public security shall be obtained, and the details of the
examination and inspection work shall be arranged.
9. New ports shall be opened according to the relevant State or local
plans. The competent departments under the State Council, and the
provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the
Central Government, shall send plans (drafts) of opening ports to the
Leading Group for Port Affairs of the State Council two months before a
planned year begins, with copies sent to the State Planning Commission,
the Ministry of Labour and Personnel and the relevant competent
departments of the units in charge of inspection and examination.
10. The sources of funds for building facilities for inspection and
examination at the open ports:
(1) The Central Government shall be responsible for providing the funds
for the ports under its administration. The local people's governments
shall be responsible for providing funds for the ports under their
administration.
(2) Where grounds for combined inspection and examinations are needed in
such port construction projects (including projects with foreign
investment and Chinese and foreign equity joint-venture projects) as
harbours, wharves, railway stations and airports (including those which
have been transformed from military airports used for both military and
civilian purposes) as well as in such projects as newly-built operation
areas at old ports and new harbour areas in economic development zones,
the construction of these grounds shall be incorporated into the plans of
the main projects of the prescribed harbours, wharves, railway stations
and airports. The investment needed for the construction of these grounds
shall be incorporated in the investment for the main projects. The
competent departments for port construction projects shall organize the
relevant units to carry out research on the investment structure for the
construction of the facilities for office work and for the daily life of
the staff members (including dormitories) of the units in charge of
inspection and examination and present itemized reports to the State
Planning Commission for examination and approval. After the approval is
obtained, the investment shall be transferred to the provinces, autonomous
regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government where the
ports are situated. The local people's governments shall be responsible
for the unified planning, designing and construction of the ports. Where
military airports are to be transformed into airports for both military
and civilian purposes, agreement should be obtained from the Air Force or
the Navy beforehand. In the case that the construction is to be carried
out within the airports, the units responsible for the construction may
submit draft plans, which shall be incorporated in the unified plans of
the Air Force or the Navy.
(3) Where the existing harbours, wharves, railway stations and airports
directly under the administration of various ministries (or bureaus) need
to be opened, the grounds for combined inspection and examination for
these ports shall, in principle, be set up by making use of the existing
buildings and facilities. If it is necessary to extend the original
buildings or build new grounds for combined inspection and examination,
the competent departments for the harbours, wharves, railway stations and
airports shall be responsible for the investment. The investment for the
construction of the facilities for office work and the daily life of the
staff members (including dormitories) of the units in charge of inspection
and examination shall, in principle, be provided by their respective
competent departments. In the extreme cases of difficulty with respect to
investment, the State or the local governments may provide appropriate
subsidies. The investment shall be turned over to the relevant people's
governments, which are held responsible for the completion of the
construction.
(4) The local people's governments shall be responsible for the investment
and construction of the grounds for combined inspection and examination
and the infrastructure facilities for office work and the daily life of
the staff members (including dormitories) of the units in charge of
inspection and examination, which are needed in their newly-opened ports.
(5) The construction plans and sources of investment for international
seamen's clubs shall be provided in accordance with the provisions of
Paragraphs (2), (3) and (4) of this Article.
(6) The means of transport, instruments, equipment, etc., needed by the
units in charge of inspection and examination shall be provided by their
respective competent departments.
(7) Within grounds for combined inspection and examination, the rooms for
office work and other related purposes (including water, electricity and
inner-city telephone) which have been assigned to the units in charge of
inspection and examination shall be provided free of charge by the
business units of the harbours, wharves, railway stations and airports
(including those used for both military and civilian purposes).
11. These Provisions shall be interpreted by the office of the Leading
Group for Port Affairs of the State Council.
